Strange Animals and Creatures in Islamic Miniatures : Focusing on Miniatures of the Conference of the Birds

Strange animals and creatures have always existed in every mythological culture. In Iran's pre-Islamic and post-Islamic miniatures and reliefs, there are many strange animals and creatures such as dragons and phoenix which were associated with the Iranian culture and civilization. Because of presence of these strange creatures, particularly human life, these creatures are first used in mythological life and then symbolically to express human ideas. However, these animals were present in both mythology and epics and, later in the Islamic era, in the mystical stories, educational stories and admonishing anecdotes like Sanai, Attar, and Rumi. This study tends to investigate genealogy of strange animals and creatures in ancient Iranian reliefs and their continued presence in miniatures of Islamic era as well as presence of these creatures in miniatures which are based on Attar’s Conference of the Birds. In fact, this study reviews elements and symbolic concepts of animals, allowing a deeper understanding of function of elements and symbolism in works of Iranian miniaturists. Contemplation of miniatures, icons and the relationship between literature and miniatures will lead to many results in recognition of mystical intellectual foundations. Therefore, this study tends to investigate mysterious and unknown aspects of Iranian miniatures and find their relationship with culture and stories.


Introduction
It can be claimed that the first feature of Iranian miniature is theme, because Iranian miniaturist is mainly inspired by epic and lyrical poems and selects stories which are derived from mythology and ancient history; events happen in the world of fantasy and fairy tales.
However, these paintings are not narrative, because the illustrator avoids description of events and only describes content and theme of the story.
An important feature of Iranian miniature is that a full effort is never made to discover and explore the third dimension (depth); in other words, effect of light and shadow is ignored equally.In this case, the painted scene is a step away from the actual image reflected in eyes; this is due to certain idealism, because Iranian painters have never intended to reach realism.
In fact, dominant spirit on Iranian painting is artificial expression and realistic intent almost never leads to naturalism in expression (Grabar, 2010).
Undoubtedly, this human presence is associated with an inherent dualism.Iranian miniaturist has always distinguished between the sacred world and the material world.Hence, Iranian miniature is based on separate classification of two-dimensional space, because only in this way, any horizon of two-dimensional surface of the miniature embodies a degree of existence, and, on the other hand, a degree of consciousness.Even in miniatures in which space is uniform and connected, the two-dimensional space of the miniature is completely distinguished from its surrounding three-dimensional space.Therefore, this space represents space of another world which is associated with a type of consciousness other than ordinary human consciousness.Rules of scenery science followed in Persian miniature, prior to its decline by influence of Renaissance art as well as internal factors, are rules of natural scenery science formulated by Euclid and later Islamic mathematicians such as Ibn al-Haytham and Kamaloddin Farsi.Miniature always followed these rules and principles of this science; according to a realism which is a characteristic of Islam, miniature never tended to betray two-dimensional nature on the surface of the paper and reveal it in three dimensions, while artificial scenery science did (Nasr, 2010).

Symbols of Strange Animals and Creatures in the Works of Ancient Persia
By reviewing symbols of ancient Persia briefly, this section presents animal, natural, geometric and combined symbols in this period.In fact, Islamic art is not complete without Achaemenid and Sassanid art.

A) Animal Symbols
Achaemenid animal reliefs are divided into two categories: a) Animals which are directed and carried out by people, such as horses, donkey, lion, duck, two humped camels, sheep, giraffes (Okapi), goat, deer and antelope.b) Animals which were carved without human presence, such as cow and lion (Dadvar & Mansouri, 2006).
Animals were carved on doorways of Queen Palace, Sad Sotun Palace, and Tachara in Persepolis.

Winged Spirit
This figure was first recorded by James Morier and Sir William Ouseley in 1811.This relief exists in Pasargad.The relief shows a man with a thick beard and four wings facing towards the left, i.e. toward the center.This man has a crown connected to a grooved hat which is completely attached to head (Stronach, 2000).

Winged Bovine
The winged bovine can be found in the Achaemenid Persepolis, cups and metal plates.One of the most important reliefs discovered in Susa is a winged bovine carved as a relief on rocks.

Pegasus
In Sassanid reliefs, only two mythological creatures can be seen, Phoenix and Pegasus.
Phoenix is carved on the end wall of the veranda of Taq-e Bostan.A pair of winged horses tied to a chariot which pulls the goddess Mitra is carved on one side of a stone ossuary discovered in Bishapur.

Eagle or Hawk
For Achaemenids, eagle was as a symbol of strength and ability and a symbol of glory.They considered a flying eagle as a good omen.Achaemenids made a golden flag with an eagle; this flag sparkled in campaigns of Achaemenid kings ahead of the army over a long spear.
Like lion which is the strongest and most powerful animal on earth, eagle is the most powerful bird.Herodotus spoke of eagle and significance of this bird for Iranians.In a part of his book, Cyropaedia, as well as Nabasys, Xenophon described campaigns of Cyrus the Younger and Artaxerxes II and noted the royal flag (golden eagle with opened wings) (Sami, 1969).
The hawk with open wings is a symbol of divine protection; a flying hawk brings all earthly creatures under its influence.Thus, image of this powerful bird is a sign of dominance of universe on the earthy world.In addition to bird reliefs, however, there were combined symbols.For example, consider the winged man with a horned helmet: wing on humans or animals is a divine symbol and a sign of protection (Hall, 2001).

Miniature in the Islamic Era
Iranian-Islamic miniature evidently flourished in the eighth to the eleventh century (AH); however, pictorial works remained of the pre-Islamic era until the Mongol invasion, as well as wall paintings in later centuries are considered as other -but little-known -manifests of Iranian painting (Pakbaz, 2007).In Iranian miniature, objects are scale-free, dark and without weight, volume and shadow.Objects are reflections in a magic mirror which does not reflect things in front of itself, but illuminates them with another light and reflects them elsewhere to represent them as an image of another place.A feature of this manifestation is splendor and its effect and overall tone is excellent.
According to documents, three distinct but linked periods are considered for history of Iranian painting: 1) old traditions, distance from Greece Roman naturalism and a return to old traditions; 2) prosperity of painting; and 3) development of eclectic methods (Pakbaz, 2007).
To describe Persian miniature in the Islamic era, however, one should define the term 'miniature' precisely.Theorists have presented different and occasionally similar definitions of miniature; they partially agreed on the term 'miniature'.However, different dictionaries present different definitions of miniature.For example, Moein dictionary defines miniature as a detailed small picture; a particular oriental painting in which rules of perspective and anatomy are not met, color is a decorative element and details are shown by certain intricacy (Moein, 1978).Amid dictionary defines miniature as a detailed painting which uses lapis lazuli, gold and water on paper or metal, which is more common in the East (Amid, 1984).
Although most theorists believe that it is a French word derived from two words "minimum" (meaning small and micro) and "natural" (meaning nature) which ultimately means "small nature", Will Durant (author of the History of Civilization) defines miniature as a word derived from a Hebrew word, minium, meaning red lead which was imported by Romans from Spain.Red lead is bright purple and it is useful for gilding books.In this case, Tajvidi defines miniature as a term derived from minium (meaning a certain red color of red lead); western nations decorated books by this color.
Currently, the term miniature is used as a unite and synonym word; a group of theorists suggested the term ‫ﻧﮕﺎﺭﮔﺮی‬ for miniature and emphasized on its application instead of miniature (which refers to a decorated small picture with details.In definition of these two words, it can be considered as a painting with very fine details by using tools such as watercolor or gouache in a very small scale.

Attar's Conference of the Birds
The Conference of the Birds is a famous work of Attar of Nishapur.This Masnavi is written in the sixth century AH.Attar's works are very important in the context of Islamic mysticism.
Although few miniatures have remained from the Conference of the Birds, these works are masterpieces of Persian miniature and indicate effect of this literal work on Islamic visual culture (Foruzanfar, 2010).This is a story of birds which tend to search for the king of the birds, Simorgh, under the guidance and leadership of a hoopoe.Of all the birds which searched for Simorgh, only thirty birds were able to reach the king's palace, where they found that Simorgh is none other than those thirty birds.This allegorical work is a perfect example of symbolism which quotes very deep and meaningful stories using animals and birds.This allegorical work is a symbol of Sufi's mystic journey to the truth.Hoopoe which is messenger of the King Solomon to the Queen of Sheba is a symbol of Sheikh Sufi whose presence is assumed inevitable in mystic journey to God (Zarinkoob, 2004).In decrypting this allegorical work, it has been told that Attar wrote the Conference of the Birds to express truth in recognition of God and only believed that whoever knows himself, knows God (Servatian, 2002).
Attar started the story of birds by this verse:

Hurray! The guided Hoopoe
The messenger of truth to valleys While narrating the main story, Attar narrates many stories and anecdotes which are narrated through the main story in relation to their respective sections.However, Attar describes seven valleys which are highly important in Islamic philosophy and mysticism.The birds pass through these seven valleys to reach truth; they include: One of stories of the Conference of the Birds is very famous and it has been depicted in illustrated versions of the book more than others; this is the story of Sheikh Sanan which is the longest story narrated in the Conference of the Birds (Satari, 1999).
However, this study focuses on animals, birds and creatures depicted in miniatures of the Conference of the Birds.Hence, this study explains typological features of mythical animals and creatures in Islamic miniature and describes animals, birds and creatures depicted in miniatures of Attar's Conference of the Birds.Pictures of miniatures are presented at the end of the sections.

Symbolism of Mythical and Mythological Creatures in the Conference of the Birds
Symbolism of mythical creatures is the oldest method of expression.Human expressed his first desires and demands in the form of shapes and designs which were result of his imagination by imitating nature and the world around.These designs and shapes found multiple connotations over time and thus act as a symbol and allegory.There are many ways to describe the relationship between animal and human and many factors influence this relationship.For early humans who lived in caves, worship (as imitation) of other animals and communication with them was a way to overcome separation, loneliness, and death.In fact, animals are valuable not only in Iranian myths but also in myths of other countries.Praise of animals spread from totems and prehistoric mythology to religions.
In visual arts, the artist creates his work based on his attitude to a specific subject and complex messages contained in this work lead to a visual connection.It is not merely an imitation of nature, but unique imagination of the artist gives audience a moment chosen from the world in the range of symbolic elements in the form of thinking beyond time and place in every part of the work.In addition, the myth, as a manifestation of culture, is directly related to ethical creativity.Art and myth, like two sides of a coin, have same origin.These two are different in their presentation; moreover, myth results from collective creativity and expresses ethnic and tribal belief.However, art and myth are both products of society and culture (Yahaghi, 1990).
Plant, geometric, epigraphic, animal and human designs are motifs used in various arts of the Islamic era.However, spirit and nature of Islamic art is reflected in plant and geometric designs, while human and animal motifs were transferred from pre-Islamic art to the Islamic period.Meanwhile, there are motifs which are both animal and human, making a mysterious creature which roots back to ancient civilizations.These are the most mysterious motifs existing in miniatures of the Islamic era (Binyon, et al., 2004).This section describes mythical animals and creatures depicted in miniatures of Attar's Conference of the Birds.Most of these mythical animals and creatures are selected based on significance of their symbolic role in miniatures.

Simurgh
One of the Iranian imaginary animals, which was especially important during the Sassanid era is sīna-mrū, or as introduced in Avesta, simurgh.Simurgh has different natures of lion and eagle or hawk; simurgh is visualization of the goddess of heaven and earth waters, Aredvi Sura, or Anahita/Nahid (Pope, et al., 2001).Simurgh is incarnated in body of the Zoroastrian gods and angels.However, incarnation of Simurgh as the god of victory -the god of Bahram -is not the only reason for divinity of Simurgh (Soltanigard-Faramarzi, 1993).
The word simurgh has been mentioned in the Avesta as "mərəγō Saēnō" in which the first part means "bird" and the second part is read "Sin" with a slight change in Pahlavi and "Si" in Persian Dari and never represents the number thirty but it means hawk (Chevalier & Gheerbrant, 2009).Simurgh nest in the mythical Alborz Mountains and, as noted in Zoroastrian works, on the amazing tree of Gaokerena in the middle of Farakhkart Sea.
Simurgh contains seeds of all plants; every time it arises from the tree, thousands of branches grow on the tree and thousands of branches break when it sits over the tree.Different plants grow of these seeds (Hinnells, 2003).Simurgh is a symbol of active intellect and the winged angel.It is the mirror of love and manifestation of truth.Undoubtedly, the Avestan simurgh is sacred.Simurgh is one of the most famous creatures of Avesta.Simurgh seems like a great eagle; it is squatting over a tree containing seeds of plants and herbal remedies.In Pahlavi texts, heavy weight of Simurgh and its wings break branches of this tree, and the winds scatter its seeds across the land.
The Sassanid Simurgh is a popular motif composed of animal and bird which was often shown on silk fabrics, silverware and moldings.Simurgh is incarnated in Zoroastrian deities; however, incarnation of Simurgh as the god of victory -the god of Bahram -is not the only reason for divinity of Simurgh.Simurgh is also referred to as an angel; an example of female angel can be seen in reliefs of Taq-e Bostan.
Simurgh is a big bird with broad wings and great power.Although Avesta less talks about Simurgh (saeno), Yasht XII explains that Simurgh resides at the top of a large tree called 'vispo-bish' (healing all) in the middle of the 'Farakhkart' sea.Seeds of all plants are deposited in this tree (Razi, 1992).Therefore, Simurgh resides on top of this tree.Moreover, another tree called gaokerena grew to protect harvisp tokhma.According to Pahlavi stories, whoever eats of its leaves finds eternal life.Later, because gaokerena was in the middle of sea, its leaves became water, known as water of life (ibid: 687).
In the Wonders of Creation, Simurgh is a strong bird which can easily grab a whale and eat animals such as lion, dragon and rhino (Tousi, 1966).
However, Simurgh is a mysterious, sacred bird associated with the world beyond and it is never polluted by material world.Outer characteristics of Simurgh are similar to characteristics of Gabriel, an Islamic Archangel (Pournamdarian, 2003).

Bovine
The root of the word ‫ﮔﺎﻭ‬ in Avesta is gow and the word 'gava' means bull; moreover, qavadaenus is used exclusively to designate cow (Razi, 1992).In addition to its ordinary meaning

Peacock
Peacock in the middle of the sun with the Tree of Life is important in the art of Iran.In Zoroastrianism, peacock was considered as a sacred bird.In ancient times, it was believed that peacock became immortal by drinking water of life.Therefore, peacock is considerably associated with eternal life.Furthermore, peacock is associated with the Tree of Life, particularly in the Sassanid era.Widespread presence of this tree is remarkable in artistic works of Iran.In many works of Sassanid era, there is a peacock in decorations or on either side of the Tree of Life.For example, peacock can be seen reliefs of Taq-e Bostan, fabrics or Sassanid Ctesiphon tables (Khazaei, 2007).In an illustrated version of the Conference of the Birds, peacock and hoopoe are seen together:

Capra
Capra is a female sheep.According to Moein dictionary, some breeds of male sheep have diagonal and circular horns.In this case, they are called rams.However, female sheep of every race is generally called Capra (Moein, 1978).
In Avesta, the term Maesa means Capra, ram and the male sheep (Razi, 1992).In Avesta, Khvarenah sometimes appeared on kings in the form of this animal.Angel of Bahram was revealed to the Aryan prophet Zoroaster for the eighth time in the body of a Capra with entwined and beautiful horns (Kazazi, 1989).When the kingdom shifts from the fifth Ardavān to Ardeshir Babakan, Khvarenah in the body of a large ram jumps on Ardeshir's horse and joins him (Kazazi, 1989).

Hoopoe
In the ancient religious and mythological texts, hoopoe is not mentioned; however, this study describes this bird symbolically due to its very important presence in the Conference of the Birds.
Hoopoe is an Arabic word and refers to a bird.Different manifestations of hoopoe appear in superstitions and legends made in public mind.These stories and folk beliefs which are often far from reality are not only common in Iranian culture, but also in Arabian, Christian and Greek mythologies.For example, hoopoe is a newly-wed bride which has a comb on her head in front of a mirror; her father in law arrives and she flies with the comb on her head (Hedayat, 1977).
In literature, hoopoe sometimes is introduced only as a messenger without other elements of the story of Solomon and it loses its symbolic and mystical role.Often, these examples can be found in works of poets whose poetic approach is manifestation of nature.
Various features of hoopoe are well presented in poetic descriptions and similes and metaphors in the form of literary expressions, commentary or interpretations.However, the contemporary literature rarely mentions hoopoe, while other symbolic birds such as Simurgh are more reflected.Among birds, hoopoe is more prominent in Persian literature because of its key role in a Quranic story.In addition to characteristics such as crown and colorful plumage color, it has become a religious myth.In the magnificent work of Attar, this bird is a leader and director.It is noteworthy that the Herat miniaturist, Behzad, found the anecdotes and stories of the Conference of the Birds an excellent opportunity for creative realism and created masterpieces of Persian miniature.Symbolic expression in mystical literature in which the Conference of the Birds is linked with visual language of miniature.
This study tended to introduce Persian miniature (Islamic and pre-Islamic) and summarize images of animal reliefs in Achaemenid and Sassanid era.By introducing the Conference of the Birds, this study described strange animals and creatures shown in miniatures of this mystical and poetic work.In the illustrated versions of this work, particularly in miniatures of Behzad, these miniatures were symbolic, creative, and artistic.

1.
Valley of the Quest, where hundreds of suffering and evil arises at any moment; 2. Valley of Love, where entrants are trapped in fire; 3. Valley of Knowledge, where people choose a path based on their talents; 4. Valley of Detachment, where seven seas are a lagoon and pond, and seven stars are nothing but flare; 5. Valley of Unity, where everything is connected; 6.Valley of Wonderment, where every breath is a blade and every moment is a lamentation; 7. Valley of Poverty and Annihilation, where speaking is not allowed and it is forgetfulness (ibid, 24).

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: Miniature of Simurgh in Attar's Conference of the Birds

Figure 3 :
Figure 3: Miniature of peacock in the Conference of the Birds

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This animal has been depicted frequently in Islamic paintings and miniatures.In versions of the Conference of the Birds, there is a white Capra on top of the mountain and peacock and other birds and animals under the mountain.

Figure 4 :
Figure 4: A version of the Conference of the Birds, extensions of Isfahan School, Metropolitan Museum, Sheikh Sanan story

Figure 5 :
Figure 5: Miniature of hoopoe and peacock in an illustrated version of the Conference of the Birds